coca article test

[top] An Introduction to Coca

[top]Coca, Erythroxylum coca, coca leaf, coca tea, mate de coca

 

• 1 An Introduction to Coca
  • 1.1Coca, Erythroxylum coca, coca leaf, coca tea, mate de coca
• 2 Using Coca
  • 2.1Sacrificial offering and divination
  • 2.2“chewing"
  • 2.3Drinking
  • 2.4Other uses
• 3Effects of Coca
• 4Summary
• 5Health risks and potential dangers of coca
  • 5.1Can coca use be lethal ?
  • 5.2Is coca addictive ?
• 6 Forms of the Coca plant
• 7Pharmacology of coca
• 8Reported alkaloids in coca
• 9History of coca and cultural background
• 10Legal status and politics of coca
• 11Growing Coca
• 12 More Forum Coca Sections
• 13 The latest Coca threads

 

The word coca refers to specific plants in the Erythroxylum family (Erythroxylaceae), Erythroxylum coca, more precisely to their leaves, which form a natural stimulant when “chewed” or infused as a tea.
Coca has a long ethnobotanical history of human use, with recorded archeological evidence going back to 5000 years.
In its traditional setting, coca is a stimulant, but also a nutritional food supplement, a medical plant used to alleviate pain and discomforts, a religious offering and key symbolic element in various social and religious rituals.

[top] Using Coca

[top]Sacrificial offering and divination

In the traditional coca using areas, coca leaves, anthropomorphized as a female figure called Mama Coca, played and play an important role in spirituality. Once a holy plant reserved for the Inka hierarchy, bundles of coca leaves, called kintus in Quechua, are to this day a crucial element of sacrificial bundles (along with candies, cigarettes, incense and other items) which are burnt as offerings to Pacha Mama (Mother Earth) or Inti (the Sun God). There is also a tradition of reading coca leaves as a form of divination, somewhat similar to the practice of reading tea leaves in other cultures. Coca leaves are also given and chewed in important social events and ceremonies such as weddings and mournings.
In shamanistic contexts such as those of the Amazon basin coca leaves are part of the tools used by the shaman/ healer as means to reach the other world.

[top]“chewing"

The best well know of using coca is “chewing” the leaves. The word chewing is actually incorrect as the leaves are not chewed, but rather left to macerate in the mouth, the only action being occasional pressing or sucking on the ball of wet coca leaves. But since the term “chewing” is so commonly used, we’ll use it here as well, yet with quote marks to underline its inaccuracy.
This practice, developed in the Andean countries, has many vernacular names, such as “picchar”, which change according to ethnic group and location.
The process however, is pretty much the same :

Whole coca leaves are stripped of the veins in order to avoid any trauma of the hard parts of the leaf to the mouth’s mucosa lining.
A mouthful of coca leaves is first preparated with a gentle chewing action so that the vegetable cell membranes are opened, and wet with saliva.
This shapes the mouthful of coca leaves into a small ball, a ball shaped quid or bolus. This quid is said to weigh roughly 8 to 10 grams according to most sources, although this is almost certainly wrong, and would need to be verified. Indeed, whole coca leaves are quite bulky, and the actual leaf weight is probably overestimated.
Actually a bulky wad of 20 to 40 dried coca leaves, which seems like the maximum quantity which fits comfortably in a human mouth, weighs no more than 3 grams…

The bolus of coca leaves is then formed usually placed between the gum and cheek lining,
just below the outlet of the excreting duct of the parotid salivary gland.
From then on, the coca leaves will stay in this place, and are not in contact with the teeth but with the gums and cheek mucosa, occasionally pressed upon by contraction, and sucked upon.
The process is actually a form of incorpore, buccal extraction.
After 10 to 15 minutes, when the coca leaves are well dampened, the quid is ready, “chewer” adds a basifying agent. This alkaline substance will make the saliva more basic, thus extracting the alkaloids out of the coca leaf material. The quid is not effective before adding the alkali, which is a crucial step, as non basified saliva does not pull alkaloids from the coca leaves.
After adding the alkaline agent, the saliva is then kept in the mouth, filling up with alkaloid which are absorbed by the mouth mucosa, and enter the blood stream.

This alkaline agent, traditionally called llijta, lejia in Quechua cultural areas, is used made of vegetal ashes, such as burnt plantain or quinoa, but also of seashells, coal, or in more urban areas, of sodium bicarbonate ( called “bico” or “bica”). One could also use limestone paste, used in the Betel chewing traditions of India and South East Asia.
Some alkaline agents are sold flavoured, which adds a specific taste to the chewing experience.

A few minutes after adding the alkaline agent, one can feel an intense anaesthetic effect on the mucosa in contact with bolus and also in the cheek lining, tongue and possibly on the throat as some saliva is swallowed.. The ingestion of the juice also exerts an anaesthetic effect on the throat, the lower intestinal tract and at the systemic level, which explains the Andean tradition of using coca as a relief for intestinal cramps.
This topical anaesthetic effect ( which spurred the initial development of Western research on coca, then extracted cocaine, for eye and mouth surgery) is also sought in the medical uses of coca as a relief for dental pain, sore throats, headaches etc… Sometimes coca filled saliva is used as dressing, topically applied to painful areas, for instance on bone fractures, contusions, rheumatisms or arthritis. In more urban areas, coca is also commercially sold as balms ( pomadas de coca)

After 15 to 20 minutes, the coca alkaloids are absorbed into the bloodstream with the previously described effects.
Coca’s effects are strong from the onset, but diminish progressively , so the intake is usually increased slowly to maintain the effect. Coca leaves are usually kept for 45 minutes to an hour in the mouth, the anaesthetic effect indicating whether the coca leaves are still active or exhausted.
In some parts of the Andes, the “time used to chew one bolus of coca” the cocada, was used to measure walking distances.
Intensive users of coca such as farmers and miners “chew” coca at least three times a day, sometimes more when the work is hard, an amount which has been calculated as 400 grams of coca a week ( 13 ounces), although one would have to check it the quid weight measurements were correct… Taxi drivers, whose work is less physical, have been reported to chew coca continually throughout their driving shift.
Most studies, at least the less biased ones than those of colonial times or backed by political agendas , point that coca “chewing” is not habit forming. Users stop without suffering physical or psychological effects, and show no compulsive behaviour associated with addictive tendencies. Coca use is linked to physical activity, and is rarely used when not working.
With the notable exception of ritual coca use, when coca is given and chewed, along with alcohol and tobacco, as offerings to deities ( very present in Quechua Andean culture, for mourning and other occasions) or the shamanistic traditions of the Amazon.
Coca is also used as a more social stimulant in urban areas, such as in the Afro-Peruvian communities of Lima, where coca and alcohol are consumed together in more recreational settings.

[top]Drinking

The other well known way of using coca is drinking coca leaf based infusions, either with fresh coca leaves or ground coca leaf teabags. The vegetal taste is actually quite close to Japanese sencha, green tea. Effects of such coca infusions are very weak compared to coca “chewing”, actually comparable to strong green tea, with a little fatigue relief. There is no mouth numbing effect. However, drinking coca tea is very popular, despite the weak stimulation, as the tea is tasty, rich in vitamins and nutrients, and as the coca alkaloids act on blood pressure issues, effectively alleviating headaches and other symptoms of altitude sickness, as well as gastro-intestinal discomfort. This use is thus very popular, even among non-rural communities, which would look down upon coca chewing as a tell tale sign of the lower class peasantry. Chewing coca is low-class Indian habit, but drinking coca tea, especially commercial teabags sold in supermarkets, is widely accepted.
Coca teabags are manufactured and sold by companies, private ( such as Zurit or Herbi in Peru), cooperative or with state subsidies ( Bolivia's Frutti, MacMate, Windsor or Peru's Andina Real), or entirely state run (such as Peruvian government’s E.N.A.C.O., with the Delisse Brand), and have been given the name “mate de coca”, or coca mate, a commercial (if incorrect) reference to the very popular tradition of yerba mate drinking, found in Argentina, Chile, and other countries. Yet coca is not to be confused with caffeine ( mateine) rich yerba mate.
This use of coca is also very popular with tourists, who are common victims of altitude sickness, and is actually recommended by traditionally coca-unfriendly authorities such as the American embassy / consulate in Peru...

[top]Other uses

In the past, coca (not cocaine, but actual coca leaves) was used in a diversity of pharmaceutical preparations such as wines, tonics, elixirs etc, to relieve fatigue. This used can be found in Western codexes up to the 1940’s, and then disappeared, mostly due to the new restrictive, cocaine related international legislations which came to included coca, leaf and plants, for reasons yet to be cleared up.

But this has changed, and since the 1990’s, as coca’s inocuity and value was “rediscovered” and promoted, and other actual uses of coca are developed, new coca wines and other alcohol macerations, elixirs and many forms of coca enriched commercial products which supposedly benefit from the medicinal properties of coca alkaloids, coca creams, coca soaps, coca toothpastes, ground powder coca pills, energy drink additive, coca honey, coca chocolate…
Coca wines however, are still strongly associated with Native culture, and most are manufactured by producers themselves, and not sold in supermarkets, but rather through street vendors, market places and specialised shops.
Some anthropological literature has also mentioned smoking of coca leaves, yet this is probably more of a ritual use then an effective one as it is hard to understand how smoked coca leaves could have any psychoactivity, as those who have experimented with the leaves smoked or vaporised have reported that this is uneffective, and would indicated that the leaves are either mixed with other substances or prepared in a way which would make this form of use possible.
And lastly, for the record, coca leaves are indeed also processed in order to extract one alkaloid to its HCl form, know as cocaine, but this product is no longer coca…

As a side note, mate de coca teabags can also be chewed, a more urban and Western tradition. Because the coca leaf is already ground, this method is actually more effective then “chewing” whole coca leaves. As a rule, 3 to 8 teabags are opened, and a pinch of sodium bicarbonate is put into each bag. The bags are then closed with saliva, moistened with a little water and / or placed into the mouth, forming a coca / teabag paper bolus, and used as regular coca leaves would be. Saliva is kept in the mouth, and after 15 minutes, numbing effects are felt, just as one would with whole coca leaves. Yet this method is actually more effective than “chewing” whole coca leaves, because shredding the coca leaves makes the buccal extraction more effective, and because coca leaves are less bulky, which allows the user to really “chew” the reported quantities of 10 grams of coca leaves, as this is actually not often the case with whole coca leaves.

[top]Effects of Coca

The most effective way of using unextracted coca is the process of “chewing” the leaves, usually done in a semi-dried state ( the coca leaves having been sun-dried but not to the point of losing their flexibility) Coca leaves dried in this matter can be kept over a long period of time.
Freshly picked coca leaves are more concentrated in alkaloids, but almost impossible to find outside cultivation areas.
However, the effects of chewed coca leaves are actually not only more moderate but actually quite distinct from those obtained through the well known use of pure cocaine alkaloid, in HCl form or freebase salt. This less well documented characteristic of coca is due both to the specific the chemical make up of the coca plant and mode of use.
Though this has not truly been studied in detail, it is clear that the coca plant’s pharmacology plays a role in balancing out the effects, and in a way downplays the psychoactivity and detrimental aspect of the coca plant’s cocaine constituent.
In the traditional method, coca leaves are said to be “chewed”, an incorrect term which designates an “incorpore” crude extraction of the coca alkaloids, performed in the user’s mouth by letting the coca leaves soak in basified saliva. The coca alkaloids are then absorbed through the mouth mucosa (and to a lesser and more accidental extent, through the digestive tract), thus entering the bloodstream.
This buccomucosal absorption technique implies a gradual delivery of the coca alkaloids into the bloodstream, a physical limitation to the amount of coca leaves used at one time, and also that there is no actual isolation of the cocaine alkaloid itself, but actually a crude and non-specific extraction of the coca plant’s alkaloid cocktail.

Coca is a psychomotor stimulant. The action of the “cocktail” of coca alkaloids is two folds : physical and psychological.
From a physical point of view using coca increases stamina : one can perform physical activities on a longer timescale, and tires less quickly.
The body is more energetic, one can work, walk, work out, and swim longer…
Yet unlike extracted cocaine, one is not over stimulated. Although psychomotor activity is indeed increased, one does not feel hyperactive, or experience feelings physical restlessness frequently associated with cocaine.
At high doses of coca one might experience a slight trembling of the hands, but not much more.
Fatigue is eliminated by coca, one feels less tired, as if refreshed, and local pain ( such as muscle pain, or back pain) is also lessened.
Hunger is suppressed, though this is temporary, and coca has no real effect on appetite : coca diminishes the feeling of hunger, which comes back after the effects wear out.
Bowel movement is stimulated, as coca stimulates the digestive system, but not to the proportion of cocaine, which is known to induce colic like reactions.
Blood pressure is raised slightly, and after long chewing sessions a light vasoconstrictor effect can be felt in the nose, extremities, hands, feet become colder.
Blood circulation is enhanced by a slight acceleration of heartbeats.
One’s Mouth is anesthetised, numbness begins to spread to the teeth and gums as alkaloids are released from the coca leaves.
Coca, like most stimulants, also reduces the feeling of intoxication of alcohol.

From a mental point of view, the best way to describe the effects of coca would be saying that one’s mood is lifted. A mood uplift, antidepressant like, not euphoria or anything comparable to the rather violent effects of cocaine HCl, yet one feels less gloomy (as cocaine is part of the picture which, does imply some comparable means an action on brain chemistry, and dopamine, but again one a much smaller scale) more eager to do something, but because the effects are more along the lines of a mood uplift than euphoria, one might be more motivated to indulge in work, productive activity. One feels more awake, concentration is increased, and the desire to sleep lessened.
By chewing coca for long periods, as taxi drivers do in some Latin American cities, one can stay awake for increased periods of time, with a sensation of alertness and mental clarity.
Libido can also feel stimulated, and sensorial functions become more intense.
Intellectual activities are accelerated, and there is sometimes a slight feeling of consciousness expansion (which could explain its use during religious rituals).
Emotionally, the effect of coca is stimulating, the individual feels more motivated, happy, optimistic, talkative, and eager, willing, to undertake action.

Cocaine HCl’s effects, in way it is most commonly used, could be said to be an instantaneous rush, a somewhat overwhelming, euphoric and hyperactive peak. In comparison, coca use gradually makes one feel more motivated, more eager to indulge in some productive activity, and allows the user to do that by increasing physical stamina and reducing hunger. And coca effects can be maintained over long periods of time without reaching a form of physical or mental saturation as one would with cocaine HCl.
It is very easy to concentrate on one task while chewing coca, whereas maintaining concentration is sometimes difficult when under full-blown effects of cocaine. Because it lacks cocaine HCl’s peak of sudden euphoria, coca’s recreational potential is actually quite low, yet its stimulation is unique, useful and with very little side effects.
Due to “chewing” technique’s gradual delivery of the coca alkaloids, their moderate concentration and their complementary nature, coca use seems to lacks the side effects and dangers of cocaine ( such as cravings, hyper stimulation, paranoia, cardiovascular risks), but also those of milder stimulants such as coffee, and its jitteriness.

Stimulation takes about 10 / to 15 minutes of chewing to be felt, and the main indicator is the numbness of the “chewer’s” mouth. Full coca stimulation does not last long, its effect decrease maybe 30 minutes after chewing has stopped. Yet due to the gradual mode of use, the effects can be sustained for quite sometime, simply by adding more leaves, without reaching saturation. The coca leave’s numbing effect acts as an indicator, the coca leaves are exhausted when it is no longer felt.

After long coca chewing sessions, there might be a short interval of “coming-down”, when physical stimulation stops and eventual fatigue sets in, and as the mood uplifting wanes away, but this does not exceed 30 minutes and is not comparable to the cocaine comedown or crash. It is a progressive return to a non stimulated state rather than a depression like episode, and not proportional to the duration of coca “chewing”.

Psychoactivity of coca radically differs from that of cocaine HCl in that the extracted cocaine alkaloid generates sudden, short lived euphoric peaks, notably due to the sudden effects dopamine release, whereas the psychoactive effects of coca are more in the line of a gradual mood uplifting, motivation and “glow”.
This is very different, coca does not “get one high” as one would with cocaine HCl, and even though those who have experienced extracted cocaine might recognise that cocaine is indeed part of the picture, it is but a pigment in the wider palette of coca effects.
Coca is not really a recreational stimulant, but rather more of a positive work “companion”. The difference between cocaine’s recreational hedonistic qualities and coca’s more humble and productivity inclined effects is also outlined and reflected by the social context and symbolism associated to both substances, which are radically different…

The following statement might be considered too subjective, yet it seems striking that the images most commonly relayed by the media regarding cocaine HCl use ( including fiction movies, anti-drug campaigns) litterature ( see “white lines”, writers on cocaine or “de l’encre sur la neige”, both collections of fictional litterature on the subject of cocaine use) are two-fold : those associated the history of the substance, which became rare, expensive and somewhat “exquisite” after prohibition, gaining popularity and exposure in the entertainment industry of the U.S.A. and Europe, with a climax in the late 1970’s to the the 1980’s cocaine boom : images of lively urban lifestyles, easy money, rich fast-living celebrities, artists and party lovers, glitter and glamour, sex and excess. And on the opposite, reinforced with the developpement of distribution cartels and of low quality freebase cocaine ( “crack”) images of slums, violence, addiction, crack, prostitution, criminal gangs and bosses etc…
Coca use ( i.e., coca when it is not linked to the specific criminalised context of cocaine production, with cartels, paramilitaries and left wing guerillas) on the other hand, brings up images of arid villages of the Andes, ancient civilisation and knowledge, remains of Inca society, religious rituals and traditional medicine, colonisation, silver mines, repression, discrimination, working in the field, peasants and urban taxi drivers, North-South divide, political struggle and resistance… This dichotomy, however subjective, is not unrelated to the crucial differences in the nature of coca and extracted cocaine HCl’s effects.
Due to its mode of use, actual effects and lack of psychophysical side-effects, coca has throughout its history not become a problematic recreational substance, and is very unlikely to do so…

When consumed with alcohol, psychoactive effects of coca are altered, and become slightly more euphoric, and yet diminish the feeling of alcohol intoxication, as most stimulants ( amphetamines, ephedrine, cocaine, caffeine…) would.
This can lead to over drinking and other physical complications.
The combination, in high doses, is quite toxic (despite the low cocaine concentration of coca, the cocaethylene alkaloid is probably still formed in the bloodstream), stronger vasoconstriction and cardiovascular effects.
Even if is a mild and safe one, coca is nevertheless a stimulant, and should thus be treated with the usual precautions associated with stimulant use, and possibly harmful combinations.

Coca products are also beneficial in reducing effects of hypoglycaemia, and gastrointestinal pain. Coca contains also contains anti-oxidants, improves oxygen uptake, and has a beneficial effect on fluid management.
It is commonly used to counter effects of altitude sickness, sorojche ( coca tea is served to tourists in high altitude areas of the Andes to fight AMS), and also reduces effects of motion sickness.

[top]Summary

Coca is a stimulant which revitalizes refreshes the mind and body and energizes, increasing physical stamina, endurance, and reduces the need for sleep.

Coca is a short lived antidepressant in that it elevates and brightens mood, gives one more motivation to do something, without stronger stimulant’s euphoria and possible depressive side effects nor addictive potential..

Coca is a nutritional asset, source of vitamins and minerals, and has an action on the metabolism’s regulation of carbohydrates.

Coca stimulates the digestive processes, and reduces gastrointestinal pain.

Coca acts against fatigue and altitude, and motion sickness, and, to some extent, relieves physical pain.

Some suggested but lesser understood or studied effects of coca point out a reduction and/or limitation of oxygen consumption and caloric expenditure, which would further explain the benefice effects of coca on altitude sickness.

[top]Health risks and potential dangers of coca

It is very important to understand why and how, for the reasons explained above, coca is differs from cocaine HCl.
If coca does include the cocaine alkaloid , the mode of use, alkaloid makeup and concentration levels makes the reality of coca use utterly distinct from that of cocaine HCl.
This fact was not well known, or at least rarely stated until the 1990’s, as it would probably have seemed detrimental to the radical actions undertaken in the name of U.S.A. backed “war on drugs”, which was also a “war on cocaine ( HCl)” and which turned out to be a “war on the coca plant” itself, with sometimes disastrous social and ecological consequences, such as
crop/water/food/human poisoning case linked to the spraying and fumigation of coca fields by helicopter for eradication…
Not to mention the role this particular agenda has played in creating and trying to manoeuvre political and military actors, closely related to the problematic situations of the coca producing countries in the early 21st century.
It is important to keep in mind that coca use has been stigmatised in many ways :
first by conquistadores and the Catholic Church, for being a ritualised practiced linked to the old social structure and religion, then by the new colonial and post-colonial authorities for being a symbol of native identity, a backwards relic symbolising lack of civilisation, then by the new middle-classes for being a symbol of low, working Indian, class. It was then further demonized as the international drug laws were established in the 20th century, were coca was assimilated or confused with cocaine.
Up to the 1980’s, it was difficult to find studies of coca which were no influenced by a palpable desire to condemn coca use for political reasons, be they domestic and linked to post-colonial issues of authority and class tension, or exterior, linked to pressure groups supporting prohibitionist drug policies. Since the 1980’s and 1990’s, coca is finally starting to be accepted and studied in a less biased way. In the light of this particular context, we can really ask the question : what are the real dangers of coca use ?

Hydrolysis of naturally occuring cocaine of the coca leaf : when coca leaf is chewed, cocaine alkaloids rapidly go through the process of hydrolysis, due to the alkaline nature of human saliva, which turns most of the cocaine into ecgonine.
Ecgonine is said to be 80 times weaker than cocaine, and does not have the euphoric effect of cocaine. It is a stimulant which helps regulate of the glycemia (concentration of glucose in the blood), which is why chewing coca is so recommended for altitude sickness issues.
Ecgonine, according to studies published in Paris in 1965, would re-establish a balanced glycemia, act on the glucose deposits stored in the liver, burning them and generate elemental glucose, which is then converted into a source of energy for muscular and cerebral work.

[top]Can coca use be lethal ?

An important question, and yet the lethal dosage of coca leaves is still to be determined.
By using the cocaine (HCl) LD50, it is clear that according to the commonly reported cocaine alkaloid concentrations present in coca leaves, one would have to ingest a tremendous quantity of coca leaves to raise this alkaloid concentration to potentially lethal levels.
LD50 of cocaine HCl, based on mice, is said to be 95.1 mg/kg, ie 5706mg for a 60kg human, with the incertainty such a linear sca ling implies. With an average amount of 5.11 mg, and 4.86 mg cocaine ( and cocaine related alkaloids…) per 1 gm of dried coca leaves ( based on a 1996 survey), this would roughly imply a dose of 1116.6 gm of leaves with a 5.11gm cocaine concentration, hence very quickly ingesting over a kilo of leaves.

And this is practice which doesn’t correspond to the actual way coca leaves are used, via “chewing”, activity physically limited by the size of the user’s mouth, which could hardly accommodate more than 15 grams of leaves…
According to some sources, a LD50 of a coca extract is 3450 mg/kg, which seems lower than that of cocaine HCl.
However, this refers to an coca extract, and it is difficult to estimate what quantity of coca leaves this would correspond to,. The LD50 of the coca extract was apparently based on a cocaine content of 31.4 mg/kg… Found LD50 of cocaine seems to vary from study to study, to which one must add the conversion issues of moving from mice to human.
In any case, reaching such a cocaine concentration implies a large amount of coca leaves, amount quite difficult to absorb and digest if the coca leaves were to be consumed, and not extracted. Extracted coca is even harder to assess as one would need to measure an average cocnetration for the extractum.
Yet the measurement quoted above does have its value, as it might be indicating that the coca leaf contains active constituents, other than cocaine, that may contribute to a toxic effect of high doses of the coca plant. Little is known on this subject, as there are no reported death linked to coca or coca extracts.
Factually based evidence seems to point out that the specific alkaloid makeup of coca, along with the mode of use of the coca plant, actually contribute to the moderation of the potentially detrimental effects of the cocaine alkaloid itself, as regular users do not develop the physical or psychological issues linked to “cocainism”…
The fact that there are no known cases documenting coca leaf overdoses, or deaths, while coca use has a history going back over 4 millennia, and documented (by Westerners) since the 16th century, seems to prove that coca, unlike cocaine, does not have any direct lethal potential.

Yet what of the consequences associated with long time use ?
Coca is a stimulant, and as such does have an action on the cardiovascular system. This aspect of coca has not really been studied in detail, in order to determine what are the eventual cardiovascular consequences of chronic coca use ( which does include low cocaine concentration), if users face heart issues, and die more frequently of cardiac failure ? It seems that if this was the case, however, it would be a well known fact that would have been exploited in anti-coca propaganda, yet it was not.
Coca induced tachycardia is very mild, so the risk of arrhythmia or cardiac problems seems very limited. On the contrary, coca seems to have a rather beneficial effect on the cardiovascular system, on blood pressure and in dealing with oxygen and caloric expenditure, which make coca so useful in dealing with altitude sickness. A detailed study of old regular coca users would be useful, but until then, one would have to take note that not many long term coca users are reported to be experiencing specific cardiovascular problems.
As for the potentially harmful effects of alkaloids in coca, such as atropine and nicotine and coniine, they have not been assessed. However, the concentrations seem very low, and probably comparable to the nicotine found in other common plants of the solanaceae family which includes tomato, potato eggplant and green peppers, all of which include small concentrations of nicotine. Most analytical studies seemed to have focused on cocaine and cocaine-related alkaloids, rather than the full spectrum of the plant, which makes it more difficult to have a clear assessement of the plant composition per species.
Finally, one would also have to take into account the way alkaloids are processed and metabolised. If long-term coca chewers do seem to show signs of atropine, nicotine or other toxic alkaloid poisoning, this is probably linked to coca’s main traditional modes of use ( chewing and brewing). Which might imply that the relative innocuity of coca would have to be revised when dealing with extracts of coca leaves.

[top]Is coca addictive ?

No. There is no physical addiction to coca ( a point in common with cocaine HCl). As for mental addiction, most sources point out that regular users get by with no coca without any difficulties, if they are hospitalised, or face financial difficulties for instance. Coca use can be stopped at once, with no cravings. In fact, it is reported that most users only chew coca in periods of activity, and do not use or want to use coca when not working. Coca does suppress hunger, but when offered a choice between a meal and chewing coca, users will choose the meal.
This is very different from the strong mental cravings, which can lead to obsession and self destructive behaviour, associated with cocaine HCl use, and is due to coca’s effects, gradual, and non euphoric effects, with no dopamine peak…
Perhaps one might associate coca and coffee, in that people would develop some form of coffee dependency / cravings could probably develop cravings for coca. However, in the traditional context, coca is not used as a “wake up call” or a way to start the day, and its consumption is mostly linked to periods of activity / physical labour, or ceremonial occasions.
Coca is not usually chewed when not active, or on “days off”, which could imply that coca use / dependency is actually distinct from that of coffee, as habitual coffee drinkers usually continue drinking coffee regardless of a day’s schedule…In this light, it is difficult to speak of coca related addictive cravings.

Not only is coca not addictive, but does not lead to the psychological problems of extreme cocainism, such as paranoia, delusion etc…Coca use does not seem to disturb sleep, at least once the effects have worn off, from 30 minutes to one hour after coca chewing has stopped.
It is also important to note that coca use ( i.e. not related to cocaine manufacture) is not associated with criminality. It is an ancient, socially integrated tradition ( if frown upon by higher classes as an Indian/low class custom). Coca leaves are bought from the grower, or from coca sellers on the town market, or from some shops and supermarkets, not from a criminal underground.
Coca is a natural product, not cut, adulterated or with additives, and usually cultivated using without artificial fertilizers or pesticides. There was the issue of the U.S.A. backed coca spraying, which could poison coca plants but also, other crops, water, and… users, but this practice seems to be on the decline.
Coca does not seem to cause gastric problems either, though it does stimulate bowel movement to some extent, not unlike coffee. Coca does not cause hyperactivity, and coca is actually a cleaner, and probably safer, stimulant than common coffee, at least with less of coffee’s reported physical side-effect.

Frankly speaking, the only attested potential dangers of intensive coca use are the following :
halitosis, i.e. bad breath, coca-breath, a specific stench linked to chronic coca chewing. Nothing much can be done apart from mouthwashes and a more thorough buccal hygiene, regular teeth washing…
And the question of possible mucosa damage, mostly linked to the basifying agents used in order to make the saliva more alkaline.
It is hard to get real information on this issue. Whereas coca leaves do contain the cocaine alkaloid, there are no known cases of perforated mouth mucosa, as in cocaine HCl insufflation septum related issues. Indeed, when cocaine HCl is regularly insufflated ( snorted), the vasoconstrive (which lead to decreased nutrients to the underlying cartilage) and abrasive /irritant ( notably from the adulterants / cuts present in the illicit substance) qualities of cocaine can dig a hole into the nose’s cartilage structure which separates each nostril from the other ( the septum), a permanent damage which requires reconstructive surgery.
Even though coca leaves contains a small concentration of cocaine, the mouth mucosa does not deteriorate as such. This is most likely due to the low cocaine concentrations and to the fact that the alkaloids freebases from the leaves and is absorbed into the mouth lining, whereas cocaine HCl itself is the hydrochloride salt, which has different qualities.
However, is alkaline saliva good for the mouth, teeth and gums ?
Reports vary, but this is also hard to estimate as coca users come from a culture where mouth hygiene is treated differently, and many do not use toothpaste for instance. Does coca cause decay and gum problems ? Or is this due to the alkaline agent, such as the vegetal ashes ? It is hard to tell. Sodium bicarbonate, on the other hand, is said to be relatively safe and not carcinogenic, and is probably safer to use than traditional ash-based alkalis.

In conclusion, if coca leaf is, to this day, the primary source from which cocaine is isolated and extracted, (though the alkaloid can be synthesized without coca leaves) confusing coca and cocaine is a questionable decision, which chooses to ignore the reality of coca use, and cultural tradition.
Indeed, apart from the specific problems linked to cocaine production, smuggling and dealing and use, the coca plant itself and the traditional uses such as brewing coca tea or chewing coca leaf cause no social or medical problem, and are actually recognized as rather beneficial to the populations of users…
Coca has been used for thousands of years and documented for over four centuries. It is clear that coca use is safe, non lethal and non addictive. Although more information would be needed on long-term cardiovascular issues, and possible mouth damage (liked to the coca leaves themselves of there mode of use), coca use is innocuous, and actually rather beneficial to humans, as it has a regulating metabolic effect and acts as a nutritional supplement.

[top] Forms of the Coca plant

The Erythroxylum Coca plant is native to north-western South America, but the family of Erythroxylaceae, contains over 240 species and can be found in many different environments. Many of these species still have to be studied, notably for their potential alkaloid makeup. An example of another well know ethnobotanical which is a member of this family is the Brazilian native plant catuaba, Erythroxylum catuaba ( =E. vacciniifolium). Yet for various reasons Erythroxylum coca, coca, has become the best known and most studied species of this family.

There are twelve main E. coca species and varieties. Two subspecies, Erythroxylum. coca var. coca and E. coca var. ipadu, are almost indistinguishable phenotypically. A related species, novogranatense has two subspecies, E. novogranatense var. novogranatense and E. novogranatense var. truxillense, which are phenotypically similar, yet morphologically distinguishable. (i.e. they look different, but share the same genotype and environment based variations)
In the coca species, 20 varieties include cocaine in the alkaloid makeup, yet only a few coca species, mostly erythroxylon coca and erythroxylon novogranatense, typically yield enough of the alkaloid to justify commercial cultivation. Other species contain relatively low levels of cocaine alkaloid and subsequently are not cultivated, yet it is clear that some species of wild coca have not been yet exploited, for instance two wild coca species from Venezuela, E. recurrens and E. steyermarkii, were found in 1982 to contain cocaine levels comparable to those found in the commercially cultivated coca species.
In South America, two species and two varieties within each of these species are the most cultivated :

--Erythroxylon coca Species

var. coca

var. ipadu

--Erythroxylon novogranatense Species

var. novogranatense

var. truxillense

Yet the most widely grown variety of coca is Erythroxylon coca var. coca which is cultivated on the eastern slope of the Andes from Bolivia in the south to as far north as central Ecuador.
E. novogranatense var. novogranatense thrives in the drier regions of Colombia and, to a lesser extent, Venezuela. It is also grown at lower elevations where the climate is generally hotter. Erythroxylon coca var. ipadu, is found in southern Colombia, northeastern Peru, and western Brazil in the Amazon basin. E. coca var. ipadu where it grows wild or is primarily cultivated by Indians for their own consumption, and has a lower cocaine alkaloid concentration.

A coca plant resembles a blackthorn bush, and grows to a height of 2-3 m (7-10 ft), more if it is not trimmed. The branches are straight, and the coca leaves, which have a greenish-grey tint, are thin, opaque, oval, more or less tapering at the extremities. A marked characteristic of the coca leaf is an areolated portion bounded by two longitudinal curved lines, one line on each side of the midrib, and more conspicuous on the under face of the coca leaf.
The coca flowers are small, and disposed in little clusters on short stalks; the corolla (the petals of the coca flower considered as a group) is composed of five yellowish-white petals, the anthers are heart-shaped, and the pistil consists of three carpels united to form a three-chambered ovary. The coca flowers mature into red berries.

One of the ways to identify the variety is to look at the leaves. Both varieties of E. coca (E. coca var. coca and E. coca var. ipadu) have broadly elliptic leaves. The leaf of var. ipadu has a rounded apex, whereas the apex of var. coca is more pointed. The leaf of var. coca is large, thick and dark green in color. The leaf of E. novogranatense var. novogranatense is pale green with a rounded apex and is somewhat narrower and thinner than the leaf of var. ipadu and var.coca. E. novogranatense var. truxillense is very similar to var. novogranatense except that it does not possess the lines parallel to the central vein of the leaf that are characteristic to so many varieties of coca plant.

Coca is mostly grown in Columbia, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil, but has also been exported by Western nations ( much in the way of tea and opium) to other areas, for intensive cultivation.
Yet transplantation of the coca plant proved difficult at the time, British experiments with specimens brought back to London’s Kew Botanical Gardens showed the coca plants needed quite specific conditions for alkaloid production. The most successful of the coca growing experiments was in Java ( Indonesia), during the Dutch colonial coca boom ( 1900 to the 1930’s) and generated a specie now know as Java coca , which is an Erythroxylum novogranatense var. Novogranatense, originaly transplanted from the Kew garden growing experiments. Java coca contains higher concentrations of cinnamoylcocaines, tropacocaine and four yellow crystalline glucosides.

In the recent years, there have been ( licit and underground) experiments with genetically modified coca plants, but the efforts have focused mostly on producing plants capable of withstanding the fumigation tactics employed by parties trying to eradicate coca fields.

[top]Pharmacology of coca

The most well known pharmacologically active ingredient of coca is the alkaloid cocaine which is found in the amount of about 0.2% in fresh coca leaves, but can in some cases reach 1% , the concentration varying from species to species, cultivation area, and harvest dates and external conditions such as altitude, which generally increases the alkaloid concentration .
Javanese coca has high (1.5 to 2.5% ) concentrations of ecgonine derivatives such as benzoyl ecgonine, methyl ecgonine rather than cocaine
Besides cocaine itself, the coca leaf contains a number of other cocaine related alkaloids, including Methylecgonine cinnamate (tropane alkaloid also know as cinnamoylcocaine), Benzoylecgonine ( cocaine metabolite), Truxilline, Hydroxytropacocaine, Tropacocaine, Ecgonine ( cocaine metabolite and precursor) , Cuscohygrine (pyrrolidine alkaloid), Dihydrocuscohygrine.

While coca leaves are not eaten per se, coca use also forms a nutritional complement, source of vitamins and minerals, which make it an important asset in Andean diet, especially in poorer rural areas. “Chewing” or drinking coca leaf based preparations provides respectable doses of vitamins A, C, B and E, and of phosphorous, iron, potassium, magnesium, calcium and protein, and anti-oxidants.

Here is a chemical analysis of 100gm of coca leaves :
Nitrogen
20.06 mg
Non volatile-alkaloids
0.70 mg
Fat
3.68 mg
Carbohydrates
47.50 mg
Beta carotene
9.40 mg
Alpha carotene
2.76 mg
Vitamin C
6.47 Mg
Vitamin E
40.17 mg

Thiamine (vitamin B1 )
0.73 mg
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) 0.88 mg
Niacine
8.37 mg
Calcium
997.62 mg
Phosphate
412.67 mg
Potassium
1739.33 mg
Magnesium
299.30 mg
Sodium
39.41 mg
Aluminium
17.39 mg
Barium
6.18 mg
Iron
136.64 mg
Strontium
12.02 mg
Boron
6.75 mg
Copper
1.22 mg
Zinc
2.21 mg
Manganese
9.15 mg
Chromium
0.12 mg

[top]Reported alkaloids in coca

- Cocaine ( C.N.S. stimulant and euphoriant dopamine reuptake inhibitor, local anesthetic)
- Ecgonine ( both metabolite and precurser of cocaine, works on carbohydrate metabolism)
- Pectin (a heterosaccharide derived from the cell wall of the coca plant, oral demulcent which allivates sore throats, anti diarrhea)
- Papain (cysteine protease, useful in boosting antibodies, as a teeth whitener and as a remedy in that it breaks down the protein toxins of venom)
- Hygrine (pyrrolidine alkaloid, stimulates saliva glands)
- Nicotine
- Globulin ( one of the two types of serum proteins, the other being albumin, which play a role in immunology by inhibiting certain blood protease)
- Pyridine (heterocyclic aromatic organic compound, stimulates circulation and oxygenation of the brain )
- Quinoline (heterocyclic aromatic organic compound with preservative and disinfectant qualities, balances calcium and phosphorous)
- Coniine ( neurotoxin, local anesthetic)
- Cocamine ( anesthetic, analgesic)
- Reserpine (indole alkaloid with antipsychotic, antidepressant and antihypertensive qualities, blocks the uptake (and storage) of noradrenaline and dopamine into synaptic vesicles by inhibiting the Vesicular Monoamine Transporters, diminishes blood pressure )
- Benzoine ( skin healing effect)
- Inulin (naturally occurring oligosaccharides ie several simple sugars linked together, which increases calcium absorption and possibly magnesium absorption, while promoting intestinal bacteria, and is thus an effective prebiotic, stimulates immuglobine production)
- Atropine ( tropane alkaloid, which lowers the "rest and digest" activity of all muscles and glands regulated by the parasympathetic nervous system )

[top]History of coca and cultural background

The coca plant and its uses played and still plays a significant role in traditional Andean culture, notably Aymara and Quechua where the coca plant has a very special status linked to diverse ritual symbolism.
Use of coca, and sometimes cultivation, was extended from Argentina as far as Nicaragua and the Caribbean Islands. The coca plant and leaves had a sacred status in pre-conquest cultures, playing a critical role in religious rituals and initiation ceremonies. Coca leaves were notably buried with the dead. In the Inca empire, coca use is sometimes said to have been reserved for Inca nobility, though the existence of a prohibition of coca for the lesser people is not clear. Yet this direct link with religious and hierarchical structures also partly explains the ceremonial status still associated with the coca plant today, a status which has survived the invasion of the Spanish conquistadores, prohibition and then social stigmatisation.

A lesser know and document ritual use of coca is the role it plays in Amazonian shamanistic contexts, where coca is used a tool / ally by the shaman healer in his travels to the world of spirits.
In modern Andine native culture, coca leaf offerings are very common, and the coca leaves are referred to as las hojas sagradas, "the sacred leaves." The coca plant’s spirit is anthropomorphized as female figure called Mama Coca. Coca leaves bundles, kintus in Quechua, are a crucial element of sacrificial bundles (along with candy, cigarettes, incense and other items) which are burnt as offerings to Pacha Mama (Mother Earth) or Inti (the Sun God). Coca leaves are also read as a form of divination, somewhat similar to the practice of reading tea leaves in other cultures. Coca leaves are also given, and chewed in important social events and ceremonies such as weddings and mournings.

When the Spanish conquistadores seized power, coca was initially banned, as its ritual use and religious symbolism made coca both a symbol of paganism that the Catholic priests were fighting and a bonding element in the social structure that the new colonial rulers were dismantling.
In 1551 the Bishop of Cuzco outlawed coca use, which became punishable by death, because coca was said to be "an evil agent of the Devil". Many other testimonies of the 16th century
associate the coca plant, coca use and ritual, with backwards paganism or devil worship.
Yet the tides turned as the physical benefits of this stimulant coca plant were discovered.
As the natives were turned into slaves working in the mines and fields of the colonial landlords, the interest of coca as a stimulant became obvious. Coca allowed workers to work longer, harder, and to eat less due to hunger suppressant qualities. More physical stamina was needed for the slave workers of the silver mines, so coca use was encouraged despite the initial condemnation of the practice by the Catholic church. Coca came to be cultivated even by the Catholic Church itself, which played an important role in colonial society and commerce. Coca leaves, once a privilege of the ruling class, were thus distributed three or four times a day to the workers during brief rest-breaks.
Since then, coca has been stigmatised, and associated to low-class, rural, native-American culture ( as opposed to the urban higher-class Spaniard descendants or the emerging hybrid mestizo middle class).
Chewing coca was and is still often seen as an uncivilised survivance of a despised pagan / “backwards” native culture, a symbol of rurality or of urban proletarianism. This historical association with slave / low-class poverty and manual labour survives to this day, and is important in understanding the politics of coca.

Europe was first introduced to coca by the returning conquistadores, one of the wonders of the “new world”. Coca soon entered western pharmacopea, in the form of fluid extracts, elixirs, and wines, listed as tonics and antidepressants.
As science progressed, more and more people became interested in isolating the stimulant agents of coca, and from 1855 onwards European research focused on one of the dominant alkaloids, first named "Erythroxyline" by German chemist Friedrich Gaedcke, then “Cocaine” by Albert Niemann. Since then, coca is mostly famous and associated, sometimes even confused with cocaine, even though the cocaine alkaloid, if predominant, is but one of the coca plant’s 13 alkaloids.
In parallel to the research on cocaine, a new trend had developed in Europe and then North America, coca enriched drinks, commercial derivatives of the medicinal coca wines.
Coca’s stimulant qualities became a powerful commercial item, largely publicized by French
businessman Mariani, who had launched “Vin Mariani” with great success, by obtaining endorsement of the 19th century personalities.

One of Mariani’s American competitors, John Stith Pemberton launched another coca containing drink which finally dominated the market, and exists to this day under the name “Coca-Cola” ( which to this day imports coca leaves as a flavouring agent, but the coca leaves are now decocainised ) . To what extent are the coca leaves fully rid of all the alkaloids present in the leaves is not fully known, as the word “decocainised” implies only that cocaine and cocaine related alkaloids are eliminated. However descriptions of this “decocainisation” process used which can be found ( even though they are of questionable reliability due to the secrecy which surrounds such industrial processes) seems to indicate that all alkaloids might be eliminated. It is also quite unlikely that food and health control organisation would allow a soft drink rich in alkaloids to be sold openly without the cautions associated with “energy drinks” for instance. However, the presence of other coca leaf alkaloids in this soft drink still has to be investigated.
If all of the 19th century coca preparations did include macerated or distilled coca leaves, the descriptions of the relatively moderate quantities used per liter, and of the contrasting stimulating effects described indicate that these effects were either which exaggerated for advertising reasons or point out that these drinks also included a good quantity of the pure extracted alkaloid, cocaine hydrochloride, a practice not uncommon. Cocaine hydrochloride, with its much more powerful effects, eventually came to replace coca leaves in most medicinal preparations, as it was more financially viable, and the powder could be easily added to many different supports, syrups of course, but also throat lozenges or suppositories…

As previously mentioned, cocaine is but one of the alkaloids of coca’s pharmacology which also includes Methylecgonine cinnamate, Benzoylecgonine, Truxilline, Hydroxytropacocaine, Tropacocaine, Ecgonine, Cuscohygrine, Dihydrocuscohygrine, Nicotine and Hygrin.
Yet the cocaine alkaloid, and it hydrochloride, then freebase salt, have taken so much importance that many confuse coca and cocaine.
Indeed, since the study and extraction of its alkaloids by European scientists in the 19th century, many see coca *only* as a source of cocaine, and thus as the origin of the medical, social and political issues linked with cocaine use.
It is intersting to note that when coca wines and extracts were part of western medical codexes, neither these drinks nor the tonic extracts were associated with the condition of “cocainism”, vague name given to newly discovered forms of cocaine addiction, which was reserved for cocaine hydrochloride use and users. The somewhat problematic cocaine alkaloid was to overtake and replace coca in western medecine, but also in the minds of the public, leading to a confusion of coca ( the plant, the leaves, the cultural traditions and medicinal application) and cocaine, the extracted alkaloid.
After its isolation and extraction in 1855, the newly discovered cocaine alkaloid played and still plays a role as an anaesthetic in western medicine ( Bonain solution etc), then cocaine replaced coca leaves as a tonic stimulant in diverse pharmaceutical and para-pharmaceutical preparations, cocaine was experimented with as possible anti-depressant in psychiatry, and cure for opiates addiction, yet all the while also cocaine was quickly gaining fame as a recreational substance. With the recreational uses of cocaine, came the discovery of the substance’s potential health and mental issues, and legislations, followed by international prohibition, and a declared “war on cocaine”, which has focused not only on the problematic substance, cocaine, but also on the coca plant itself, on the leaves, with attempts to eradicate coca cultivation, notably through chemical spraying / fumigation.

The unilateral mode of thinking which associates coca and cocaine dominated until the late 1980’s, when the coca plant started to play a new role in coca-culture countries. As a counterbalance to the violence and political instability linked to illegal cocaine production and trade, coca use was finally promoted by producers, users and then politicians as a cultural tradition and an asset. Coca has become a symbol of native cultural identity, and of resistance to colonial and post-colonial oppression.
From the Peruvian government efforts to promote coca and coca products through the official ENACO, Empresa Nacional de la Coca , the Museum of Coca in La Paz, Bolivia, to the speech actions of political leaders such as Evo Morales, voices started explaining that coca is NOT cocaine, and that legal coca use and production are beneficial, should be encouraged. Coca promotion is a possible political alternative, offering a way out of economic, political and military crisis linked to illicit cocaine production in Latin American countries and tremendously lucrative demand for illicit cocaine in other parts of the world.

[top]Legal status and politics of coca

Coca, the leaves and the actual plant, was listed as Schedule I, along with heroin and cocaine, in the 1961 List of Controlled Substances which was annexed to the U.N. Single Convention, with the only exception given to the famous American soft drink company which imports and decocainizes coca leaves for use as a flavouring agent.
Coca plants and coca leaves are thus technically illegal in the countries which have ratified the convention.

In coca culture and production countries, governments began to accommodate the existing laws to preserve traditional use and try to restore a legality coca growing, in order to isolate the cocaine production oriented coca black market. In Peru and Bolivia for instance small coca patches are authorized in some areas, and coca chewing oriented coca leaf selling and consumption is not repressed.

(to be expanded)

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[top]Growing Coca

This section needs to be written.

Should include general text on making … and one or more how to grow … TEK’s. Difficulties(diseases, molds, infection, etc with growing)

[http://www.drugs-forum.com/forum/loc...1552&catid=104 Compilation of sources on coca cultivation]

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