Culture - Psychoactive Mushroom Use in Koh Samui and Koh Pha-Ngan, Thailand

[Smarthead]

This paper presents the results of recent ethnomycological exploration in southern Thailand. Field observations, interviews and collection of fungi specimens were carried out primarily on two islands, Koh Samui and Koh Pha-Ngan, situated in the western region of the Gulf of Siam. Some fieldwork was also conducted in the northern Thai province of Chiang Dao and in the southern Thai province of Surat Thani. During five separate excursions (1989-90), observations were made of occurrence, harvesting, use, and marketing of psychoactive fungi by local Thai natives (males and females, adults and children), foreign tourists, and German immigrants. The first records of psychoactive Psilocybe subcubensis and Copelandia dung fungi in Thailand are presented in this paper. These fungi exhibited intense bluing reactions when handled, indicating the presence of psilocybine and/or psilocine. Seven collections of Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer and/or Psilocybe subcubensis Guzmán and four collections of Copelandia species were harvested and sun-dried for herbarium deposit. These fungi are cultivated or occur spontaneously, often appearing in the decomposed manure of domesticated water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and at least three different species of cattle (Bos indicus, B. Quarus, and B. sundaicus). The psychoactive fungi are cultivated in clandestine plots, both indoors and outdoors, in the uplands and villages on Koh Samui by both Thai natives and some foreigners. The sale of psychoactive fungi directly to tourists and to resort restaurants for use in edible food items such as omelettes and soups is discussed in detail. The preparation and sale of mushroom omelettes adulterated with artificial hallucinogens in some restaurants is also discussed. In addition, the marketing of items such as hand painted T-shirts, post cards, and posters bearing mushroom related motifs in Thailand is described.

Persistent references in the tourist industry literature call attention to the recreational use of psychoactive fungi in several resort areas of Thailand, including those on the islands of Koh Samui and Koh Pha-Ngan. On site observations and personal interviews indicate that numerous restaurants on the islands of Koh Samui and Koh Pha-ngan have been serving psychoactive omelettes, stews, soups, pizzas, teas, and blended juice beverages containing mind-altering, gilled fungi referred to as "magic mushrooms" and some of these commercial establishments also sell herb cookies mixed with psychoactive mushrooms and Cannabis ("ganga").
Purchase and use of foods containing psychoactive fungi occurs primarily among tourists and West German immigrants living on these islands. To a lesser degree, use also occurs among other foreigners as well as among some native people (male and female). In addition, some local children also harvest, sell, and consume these fungi, sometimes attempting to smoke the mind-altering mushrooms in bamboo pipes. Occasionally a number of restaurants also sell mushroom omelettes containing an artificial hallucinogen. This hallucinogen (possibly LSD-25) is psychoactively more powerful and potentially more dangerous than the psilocybian alkaloids that occur naturally in some of the wild or cultivated mushrooms collected locally.

The following paper describes the psychoactive fungi recorded in Southeast Asia, their ecological association with ungulates, and some aspects of their occurrence, sale, use and psychoactive effects in selected areas of Thailand

Mycologists have long been aware that certain species of psychoactive fungi occur in some areas of Southeast Asia. However, during the past 40 years, only a few, brief references in the scientific literature describe the occurrence and consumption of mind-altering fungi in this region of the world (Imazeki & Hongo 1957, 1969; Singer & Smith 1958; Emboden 1972; Pollock 1976; Unsigned 1978; Cox 1981; Schroeder & Guzmán 1981). Five species of fungi containing the psychoactive alkaloids psilocybin and psilocin have been reported in various areas of mainland (excluding Japan) and insular Southeast Asia (Patouillard 1907; Ola'h 1969; Emboden 1972; Schultes and Hofmann 1973, 1979; Pollock 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977-78; Guzmán 1`983). Recently Panaeolus papilionaceus and Psilocybe semilanceata have been botanically identified from Pune, India (Bhide et al 1987); and a form or variety of C. cyanescens has been reported from Madras, India (Gerhardt, Pers. Comm. to T. Stijve, April 8, 1990).

P. cubensis (Earle) Singer, a coprophilous (dung-inhabiting) species, common in subtropical regions, but unknown in the tropics, was first identified from a specimen collected in Cuba in 1904 as Stropharia cubensis (Earle 1906). About the same time, Patouillard (1907) collected Naematoloma caerulescens (which is now synonymous with P. cubensis) in Tonkin (Hanoi), North Vietnam. In 1981 (Unsigned 1981), Head magazine, an ephemeral publication, published a short pictorial which featured mushroom photographs from the island of Bali. The mushrooms macroscopically resembled either P. cubensis and or P. subcubensis.

Prior to this study, Psilocybe subcubensis, a pantropical and subtropical species, macroscopically indistinguishable from Psilocybe cubensis only by the size of its spores, had only been reported from various regions in Mexico, Central and South America, and Australia (Guzmán 1983).


Although P. cubensis had briefly been mentioned as occurring in Thailand (Heim and Hofmann 1958; Hofmann et al. 1957; Picker and Rickards 1970; Hofmann 1971; Pollock 1975) no other observations of this species in Southeast Asia have been recorded in the scientific literature until this study. It should be noted that some years ago Schroeder and Guzmán (1981) reported the suspected occurrence of either P. cubensis and/or P. subcubensis Guzmán from eastern Nepal. Because of customs regulations, no specimens were forwarded to Guzmán for taxonomic study. Guzmán therefore had to identify these species using photographs supplied by Schroeder and from personal accounts of travelers who ingested the fungi during Schroeder's tour through Nepal.


In the summer and early fall of 1989, the senior author (JWA) observed Psilocybe species north of Hat Yai in the Surat Thani province of southern Thailand, and on the islands of Koh Samui and Koh Pha-ngan in the Gulf of Siam (see figure 1). In January 1990, JWA also observed and collected specimens of either P. cubensis and/or P. subcubensis from buffalo dung alongside a mountain trail in the Chiang Dao district of Northern Thailand.

The genus Panaeolus is divided into three subgenera: panaeolina (Maire), Copelandia (Bres.), Anellaria (Karst), and Panaeolus (Fr.) Quel., which are determined by the spores (smooth or verrucose) and cystidia features (see Ola’h 1969,1970). Similar to P. cubensis and/or P. subcubensis, Copelandia species are also dung-inhabiting.

Copelandia species are known to occur in the tropics and neotropics of both hemispheres. According to Guzmán (1989, pers. comm.), Copelandia species are considered to be a subgenus of Panaeolus, which includes at least 8 species (Weeks et al. 1979; Guzmán 1978, 1988, Pers. Comm.). Pollock (1976) had amended this subgenus into sections which were originally separated by Ola'h (1968), who classified Panaeolus species into three catagories: psilocybian, latent-psilocybian, and non-psilocybian. Although some mycologists refer to the genus Copelandia, most prefer Panaeolus. According to Guzmán, Panaeolus cyanescens (Berk. et Br.) Saccardo and Copelandia cyanescens (Berk. et Br.) Singer are the same fungi following two distinctly different taxonomic paths (Guzmán, 1988. pers. comm.). In Southeast Asia, the recreational use of P. cyanescens (syn. C. cyanescens) has been noted from Java, Bali, and the Philippines (Emboden 1972; Schultes and Hofmann 1973, 1979; Ola'h 1970; Pollock 1976; Cox 1981; and Lincoff 1987, pers. comm.).


Ola'h (1968) identified three species of Panaeolus occurring in various areas of Southeast Asia: (1) P. cyanescens, (2) P. tropicalis Ola'h, and (3) P. cambodginiensis Ola'h & Heim. All three of these species are also common in the Hawaiian Islands (Allen and Merlin 1992a), and the latter has been reported from Colombia in South America (Pollock 1976).


Pollock (1976) also reported P. tropicalis as "fruiting in the dung of cattle and wild animals from Cambodia (Kampuchea)", and, along with Schultes and Hofmann (1973, 1979), Emboden (1979), and Cox (1981), referred to the sale and recreational use of P. cyanescens among tourists at festivals and ceremonies on the island of Bali.

While JWA was in Bangkok (1989), several tourists informed him that "magic mushroom" omelettes (and other foods containing psychoactive fungi) were available in several areas of Thailand including Krabbi and the islands of Phuket, Phi-Phi, and Koh Samet. Other traveling informants in Bangkok described similar incidents where they were able to consume "magic mushroom" omelettes in various areas of Indonesia including Sumatra, Java, and Bali (Mood 1988; pers. comm. to JWA 1989).

On two separate exploratory excursions into southern Thailand in July and September 1989, JWA collected several specimens (from buffalo dung) of P. cubensis and/or P. subcubensis and three single specimens of an unidentified species of a bluing Panaeolus, section Copelandia. On a fourth visit to the island of Koh Samui in January and February 1990, small collections of both Copelandia and Psilocybe spp. (from cow dung), and Psilocybe sp. (from buffalo dung) were collected for herbarium deposit. Additionally a fifth visit to Koh Samui in July-August 1990 yielded another collection of Psilocybe species, as yet remain unidentified.

Although there are approximately equal numbers of domesticated water buffalo and cattle in Thailand, in the southern region, the former greatly outnumber the latter (by 10 to 1). Among the many types of cattle found in Thailand, the most frequently observed is the Katenq (Bos gaurus). In the southern province of Surat Thani JWA also observed numerous domesticated Bantenq (Bos sundaicus), which have a distinctive golden yellow colored coat.

The ungulate ancestors of the the domesticated cattle in Thailand appear to be B. sundaicus, B. guarus, and B. indicus (Johnson 1984). All three of these species have some of the characteristics of B. frontalis; and B. indicus, introduced from India, is perhaps only a domesticated form of B. frontalis (Pendleton 1961; Unsigned 1980, Unsigned 1982).

In reference to the coprophilic nature of Psilocybe cubensis, McKenna (1988) recently questioned the origin of this psychoactive mushroom, wondering whether it is "exclusively a creature of the manure of B. indicus, or can it occur in the manure of other cattle?" Although P. cubensis often occurs in association with the manure of B. indicus, especially after heavy rainfall, Schultes (1988, pers. Comm.) indicated that this mushroom species, as well as certain other species of psilocybian fungi, can occur in the manure of other wild ruminants, including species of deer. Guzmán (1983) and Watling (1989, pers. Comm.) also reported that some species of psilocybian fungi have been found in association with Kangaroo feces.

McKenna suggested that the origin of P. cubensis can be traced to Kampuchea, but provided very little evidence to support this assertion. He based his assumption on an archaeological excavation in the Non Nak Tha region of Thailand where bones of B. indicus have been unearthed in association with human graves dating from around 15,000 yr. BP (McKenna 1988).

In January 1990, JWA collected four specimens of P. cubensis (and/or P. subcubensis) and a few unidentified specimens of Copelandia. These specimens were taken from the manure of cattle (Bos indicus), known in Thailand as Wua (see figure 2). JWA observed more than twenty cattle (Bos indicus and B. sundaicus) at two locations on Koh Samui, and hundreds of water buffalo in various regions of that island.

The genus Bubalus contains two subgenera and four species of Asian water buffaloes (Groves 1969; IUCN 1972, 1976). The subgenus Bubalus includes B. bubalis (Asian water buffalo, carabao), distributed from Nepal and India to Vietnam and Malaysia, and B. mindorensis (tamaraw), only found on Mindoro Island (Philippines). The subgenus Anoa includes B. depressicornis (lowland Anoa), found in the lowlands of the Celebes, and B. gaurlesi (mountain Anoa) found in the highlands of the Celebes.

The most common water buffalo in Thailand is B. bubalis (see Fig. 3), known in Thailand as "Quai" (Player 1989). "There are two varieties in Thailand: one has dark gray skin and hair; the other has pink skin showing through thin blond hair" (Pendleton 1962). The species is believed to have originated in Nepal and India and today may be found as far east as Vietnam and to the south in Indonesia. Some authors refer to this species as B. arnee (Groves 1969).

Although the manure of water buffalo (B. bubalis) and rice paddies (see figure 4) are the primary habitats of psychoactive dung fungi in the southern region of Thailand (the fungi in question can be harvested wherever buffalo may roam). In Surat Thani province, similar dung fungi have also been observed growing in the manure of cattle (B. sundaicus) and in the manure of B. indicus in one field on Koh Samui. During late Fall and early Spring, while rice production is in progress, the majority of domesticated ruminants on Koh Samui are moved from the rice paddies to mountainous terrain (where Thai native cattle tenders harvest the fungi until the cattle are returned to the fields). The Thai people refer to mushrooms as hed and formally call their buffalo quai . Thus, the native Thai phrase for "magic mushroom" hed keequai can be translated as "mushroom which appears after water buffalo defecates". It should be mentioned that JWA also heard the expression hed keequai being used by Thai people in both Bangkok and the northern city of Chiang Mai.

In June 1989, JWA was informed by a foreign college student in Hawaii that "magic mushroom" omelettes were being served at restaurant resort areas in Thailand, specifically referring to their sale and consumption on the island of Koh Samet in the northern region of the Gulf of Siam (see Fig. 1). Although the authors were not able to visit Koh Samed to investigate this report, JWA did have the opportunity to visit two other islands, Koh Samui and Koh Pha-ngan, located further south in the Gulf of Siam. JWA visited these islands on five separate occasions (July and September of 1989, January-February 1990, and in July-August 1990). The majority of research was done on Koh Samui.

Koh Samui (10 degrees N latitude and 100 degrees E longitude) is located approximately 710 km south of Bangkok and 105 km off of the southern coast of the Thai mainland (see figure lb). It is one of the three main islands in an archipelago comprising 60-80 islands, most of which are relatively small in arial size and uninhabited. Koh Samui has a human population of about 35,000. It is the second largest island in Thailand (280 km), approximately 25 km long, and up to 22 km in width. Mountainous terrain of limestone and granite covers most of Koh Samui, with a maximum elevation of 636 m. Dense vegetation and numerous streams are common. two water falls (Hin Lad and Na Meung) are located off the main road (highway 4169) which encircles the entire island and has many side roads leading into the interior.

The more important economic activities on Koh Samui include tourism, fishing, rice cultivation, and extensive copra production. Coconut palms (Cocos nucifera) blanket much of the interior from the hillocks right down to the beaches (approximately 2 million coconuts are shipped each month to Bangkok). The fruits of durian or thurian (Durio zibethinus), rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum), langsat or lansa (Lansium domesticum), and lamyai or longai (Euphoria longana) are also cultivated on Koh Samui.

Temperatures on Koh Samui and Koh Pha-ngan range from 25 to 34C. Psychoactive fungi appear in abundance during the rainy (monsoon) season which occurs between July and October. However, both Psilocybe and Copelandia spp. were observed (JWA) being harvested by Thai Samui native people and foreign immigrants as late as February in 1990.

Native cattle tenders as well as those who work or reside in and around the rice paddies are very much aware of the effects and commercial value of hed keequai. Many of them harvest (see figure 5) and sell "magic mushrooms" (see figures 6 and 7) to numerous island resort restaurants; some natives also enjoy eating mushroom omelettes (see figure 8) and a few (including some children) were observed attempting to smoke hed keequai in pipes made of bamboo. The habit of smoking "magic mushrooms" may have been taught to the native peoples of Thailand by foreign tourists who could have read of this alleged practice in the undocumented literary works of anthropologist Carlos Castaneda (cf. Casteneda 1969; Ott 1976; Lincoff and Mitchell 1977; Pollock 1977-78; DeMille 1976, 1980). Cox (1981) also reported that this practice is popular amongst some peoples in Samoa. It should be noted that psilocybian fungi are not psychoactive when smoked.

Personal communication with numerous adolescent children in the study area on Koh Samui indicated that many in this age group are also well acquainted with hed keequai; several even offered to collect and/or sell the psychoactive dung-fungi to JWA. These children who collect, sell and consume these hed keequai can readily distinguish the "magic mushrooms" from other non-psychoactive coprophilous species found in their environment.

Similar sales of psychoactive fungi by native childrem have also been documented from Mexico by Ott (1975) and in Guatamala by Lowy (1977).

In December 1988, a Thai law was passed proscribing psychoactive fungi as prohibited plants (see Allen and Merlin 1992b). However, many "bungalow resorts" on Koh Samui still serve "magic mushrooms" in one form or another, if ordered by their customers (before January 1989, many of the more than 200 resorts on Koh Samui and Koh Pha-ngan used small billboard signs to indicate that "magic mushrooms" were available in their establishments).

Some resorts also continue to offer "magic mushrooms" in omelettes, soups, stews, and pizzas, as well as in teas and liquefied beverages. One resort restaurant was also observed serving "magic mushroom" herb cookies which contained "ganja" (Cannabis) mixed with hed keequai (cf. Cummings 1981).

Although restaurants at various resorts on Koh Samui and Koh Pha-ngan offered a fixed price of 100 Baht ($4.00 U.S.) for a mushroom omelette, the cost varies from 50 to 200 Baht at other commrcial bungalow dining places. Koh Samui children harvest and sell fresh hed keequai to tourists for 100 Baht per ounce or less. Adults may charge anywhere from 100-300 Baht per ounce depending on the season and availability of the fungi. Observations in several Koh Samui homes situated alongside the many rice paddies located throughout Koh Samui, indicated that large food scales are used for weighing the psychoactive mushrooms for sale. Young children and male adults allowed photographs to be taken of them with their mushrooms. The women of Koh Samui, on the other hand, refused to allow such photographs, expressing a fear of police and being arrested because of their association with the fungi (they indicated this by crossing their arms at the wrist as if they had been handcuffed).

A few waiters at "Munchies" resort and several other resorts on Koh Samui and Koh Pha-ngan asked the senior author where they might also collect specimens of hed keequai for their establishments.

In the fall of 1988 tourist police on Koh Samui and Koh Pha-ngan circulated printed sheets of paper (flyers) to all bungalow resorts. These issued a warning that mind-altering mushrooms (hed keequai) were dangerous (antaray) and made people crazy (`ae tam hai ben baa). The flyers also noted that these fungi were illegal. An official "tourist police officer" interviewed in the village of Ban Nathon reported that a young Austrian tourist experienced a dysphoric reaction after ingesting a large quantity of psychoactive fungi consumed in a "magic mushroom" tea. According to the police officer, this young man, in his early twenties, manifested extremely bizarre behavior as a result of his intoxication and was consequently committed to a mental institution by a Thai judge. He remained in the institution for four months before being released. As a result of this incident, and a few similar, but less serious, events, the Thai government banned the use of hed keequai in Thailand.
A somewhat different, more descriptive and interpretive analysis of this incident was also offered to JWA by a German immigrant who had worked at one of the many "magic mushroom" farms that no longer openly operate on Koh Samui. According to this informant, in 1988 the young foreign tourist, while celebrating his birthday over a three day period, ingested Cannabis, opium and psilocybin mushrooms, while continuously consuming alcohol. On his birthday, he allegedly brewed and consumed a psychoactive mushroom tea utilizing over two pounds of fresh hed keequai. In addition, he allegedly ingested heroin, along with the other psychoactive substances. Because of his subsequent anti-social behavior the tourist was indeed institutionalized for a period of four months by a Thai magistrate. Upon his release, the youth was described as coherent only briefly, and more often acted " looney as a bird".

Because of the above mentioned incident, the numerous signs advertising "magic mushrooms" were removed from in front of the various resorts along highway 4169, and a majority of the restaurants on Koh Samui and Koh Pha-ngan also removed "magic mushroom" omelettes from their menus. In July 1989 JWA obtained a menu from "Munchies" resort (see figure 9); and as recently as December 1989, JWA obtained a menu from a new resort on the island of Koh Pha-ngan (see figure 10). Both menus listed "magic mushrooms" as edible items for sale.

At "Munchies" resort in Hat Chewang, Koh Samui, which provides business cards portraying mushrooms, JWA and his Scottish traveling companion bought and consumed a "magic mushroom" omelette. The effects and symptoms produced by this omelette lasted for almost ten hours, much longer than the normal duration of a psilocybin mind- altering experience. This single experience caused the Scottish traveler some minor psychological distress which lasted for at least two months; in a private communication (1989), he stated that since returning to his home in Glasgow he was still hesitant to eat any omelette containing mushrooms.

The local native waiters who served the omelette at Munchies resort, referred to the mushrooms in the omelette simply as "magic". The manager of the restaurant claimed that the cook was the only person who knew what had been put into the omelette. Attempts to dry and preserve the omelette for laboratory study proved futile. During the second excursion of JWA to Koh Samui (September 1989), another omelette was ordered which actually contained Psilocybe mushrooms (see figure 11 and 12).

Observations and personal interviews (July 1989) with restaurant and bungalow managers at resort restaurants on Koh Samui indicate that 27 serve omelettes containing psilocybin mushrooms and three which admitted serving omelettes containing a more powerful synthetic or semi-synthetic hallucinogen ("LSD"). When the mushrooms are in season they are available to the restaurants; however, a supply of LSD has apparently been made available to restaurants at several resorts.

One of the present authors (JWA) observed A few German immigrants posting dried hed keequai to friends in Germany. These immigrants were not aware of naturally occuring psychoactive fungi in their country nor were they aware of the LSD adulterated fungi sold in their homeland.

Stahl, Brombeer, and Eskes (1978) were the first to report the sale in Germany of Shitake LSD adulterated fungi. These fungi were from Southeast Asia. Similar fungi, adulterated with LSD and PCP, (Aqaricus camaestris and/or A. bisporis) have been available for sale in the United States since the late 1960s (Ott 1976, 1978). Stijve (pers. Comm., 1989) also reported that these adulterated fungi are still being sold on the illicit German drug market.

A female informant from Sweden, who observed the senior author's consumption of the hallucinogenic omelette (possibly laced with LSD), claimed that she had observed two people who had experienced a two day dysphoric experience after consuming a "magic mushroom" omelette at another resort ("Big Buddha") in the northeast region of Koh Samui. Other tourists also reported observing similar dysphoric reactions elsewhere in Koh Samui.

Evidence regarding the use of psychoactive fungi has also been reported in several, foreign, tourist-oriented, guide books and travel magazines. For example, a publication entitled "Guide to Southern Thailand, Phuket Koh Samui" reported the following: "On Koh Samui, the island food matches the good company. Worth mentioning are the hallucinogenic mushrooms that are listed on the menu as "Magic Mushroom Omelettes". This psychedelic fungi causes headaches, mental distortion, and the feeling of being electric. If mistakenly eaten, the drugged side effects will wear off in 24 hours" (Unsigned 1989). According to a German guide book, tourist police first began the distribution of pamphlets issuing warnings about the dangers of ingesting magic mushroom omelettes as early as 1986; this guidebook also provides a brief history of psilocybin and describes its popularity amongst tourists on Koh Samui (Mobius and Ster 1987). Another guide book (in English) reports that the "Peace" bungalow resort in Hat Bo Phut, Koh Samui, offers the biggest "magic mushrooms" ever seen (Cummings 1987). Saen Sanuk, a popular, Thai Travel magazine provided the following warning and anecdotes regarding the recreational use of hed keequai on Koh Samui: "Magic mushrooms, an extraordinary species of mushroom which grows out of buffalo dung on Koh Samui and a favorite among foreign tourists, are also problem makers. The mushrooms which many restaurants and bungalows offer in their menus cause acute hallucination for consumers and such effects can be physically dangerous as well. [In the published literature on the subject of human ingestion of psilocybin mushrooms, there is no evidence to suggest that these fungi are physically toxic]. One foreign student whirled his motorbike onto a muddy roadside field after eating food cooked with the mushrooms. Another stripped all his clothes in public and went furiously hilarious" (Angsanakul 1987). This same article also warned that several people "...had to have their stomachs pumped at the island hospital". The above mentioned incident referring to bizarre, naked behavior is similar to one which occurred in Oaxaca, Mexico in the 1960's, where an unclothed "beat" ran through the streets causing a most disturbing and distressing experience for the local native peoples (Finkelstein 1969). This single incident in Mexico played a significant role in the eventual expulsion of thousands of foreign young people from that country (Unsigned 1970; Ott 1975; Pollock 1977-78). A similar incident also occurred in Australia when a respectable family man ran naked through the halls of a hospital "trying to molest the nurses who were attempting to treat his illness" (McCarthy 1971; Allen, Merlin and Jansen 1991). (Also see Part two of this paper in the same site ). In the summer of 1988, Hiqh Times Magazine published a five page exploitative pictorial entitled as "Koh Samui, Sex and Drugs in Thailand". One paragraph in this article was devoted to "magic mushroom omelettes" accompanied by two photographs of what macroscopically appear to be P. cubensis and/or P. subcubensis and a photograph of a sign advertising a "Magic Mushroom Farm" (Eder 1988). In February 1991, Islands, an international travel magazine mentioned "at night bleary-eyed blonds with silly smiles recline on cushions around a low table, munching "special mushroom" omelettes and looking at one another dreamily" (Iyer 1991).

In July 1989, JWA attempted to visit a "magic mushroom" farm in Bo Phut. The "farm" included several rice paddies which had been used by both Samui natives and German immigrants for the propagation of hed keequai. Native cattle-tenders and foreign immigrants collect and transport manure piles containing hed keequai to the rice paddies where they arrange them in rows. Fresh manure is added to the paddies and harvest takes place after the fungi appear. An anonymous farmer (pers. comm., September 1989) confided to JWA that although there were a lot of water buffalo on Koh Pha-ngan (an island north of Koh Samui, population 6,000) no one had ever found "magic mushrooms" growing there. This informant claimed that he sold "magic mushrooms" to many restaurants on both Koh Samui and Koh Pha-ngan islands. In December of 1989, the manager of the "Bongo Bar" on the island of Koh Pha-ngan was interviewed; he claimed that he picked hed keequai across the trail from his bar. He substantiated this by showing JWA the open field where he collected his supply of hed keequai. At the time when the mushrooms were not considered illegal, there were numerous "magic mushroom farms" situated throughout the two islands. Some of these commercial establishments were indoor operations. Several anonymous sources in Koh Samui and others on Koh Pha-Ngan reported that a few "farms" remained in existence, but under rigid secrecy near the small village hamlet of Ban Saket and in the mountain regions of Koh Samui.

As in Mexico, where native peoples have greatly profited from the sale of mushroom related items (Ott 1975; Pollock 1977-78), local artists and crafts-people in Thailand also market hand painted "magic mushroom" T-shirts, embroidered dress shirts, and postcards depicting what are purported to be "magic mushrooms". During the week of September 8-14, 1989, JWA observed more than thirty different, hand-painted T-shirts for sale in Thailand (see figure 13) which had hand-painted drawings of what appear to be "magic mushrooms". These garments were offered for sale in various shops throughout Koh Samui. On Koh Pha-ngan, a "magic mushroom" T-shirt displayed both Psilocybe and Copelandia species (see figures 14). Several postcards (at least 12 different) depicting "magic mushrooms" were also observed on Koh Samui, Bangkok, and in Chiang Mai (see figures 15). Similar hand painted shirts copied from some of these postcards were observed in the Banglum Poo district in Bangkok. In January 1990 the senior author observed more than twenty new hand-painted T-shirts depicting "magic mushrooms" from Koh Samui. Framed posters (copied from mushroom postcards) were now available, as were similar factory produced (machine printed) T-shirts. These same T-shirts were also available in Bangkok. In the northern Thailand city of Chiang Mai, motifs showing "magic mushrooms" adorn boxes, cigarette lighters, pencil holders and key chains; and printed "magic mushroom" T-shirts were also common at the Chiang Mai "night market" (see Allen 1991).

Three species of psychoactive fungi have been identified from Thailand; two belonging to the genera Psilocybe and one belonging to Panaeolus, sub-genus Copelandia, were observed in situ, photographed, and collected for herbarium deposit. These three species were observed in and/or collected from eight different locations throughout the Island of Koh Samui including: Ban Hua Thanon, Bo Phut, Hat Chaweng (directly across the road from "Munchies" resort), Ban Tai (three fields), Ban Lipa Yai, Ban Thong, Ban Thurian, and 6 km north of Ban Hua Thanon near the village of Ban Saket. Most collection sites are situated along both sides of highway 4169 near Hat Chaweng and Ban Lamai, and three fields near Ban Saket along highway 4170. Copelandia species were observed and collected from three locations near Ban Hua Thanon, Ban Lipa Yai, and Ban Saket.

Fungi specimens (from B. bubalis dung) collected on Koh Samui between July 25-30, 1989, included two unidentified specimens of Copelandia and a collection of either P. cubensis and/or P. subcubensis (see figure 16). They have been deposited at the Bernice P. Bishop Museum Herbarium in Honolulu, Hawaii. These specimens were collected at sea level near the village of Ban Hua Thanon.
Fungi specimens (from B. bubalis dung) collected on Koh Samui between September 8-14, 1989 included one bluing specimen of a Copelandia species (see figure 17) and a collection of P. subcubensis (see figures 18-20). The Copelandia specimen was collected in the fields at Ban Lipa Yai, 2 Km south of the port village of Ban Nathon and forwarded for study to Dr. Don Hemmis, biologist at the University of Hawaii at Hilo. Dr. Hemmis (pers. comm., 1989) has since examined the specimen and indicated that the spores are relatively small, measuring in size from 10-14 X 5-6 microns, ovate with germ pore. This specimen (collected in September 1989) and the two other Copelandia specimens (collected in July 1989), all exhibited intense bluing in the stem after handling.

The Psilocybe specimens were collected in the rice paddy fields from partially decomposed buffalo manure near Ban Hua Thanon and Ban Tai and were forwarded to Dr. Gaston Guzmán at the Instituto de Ecologia in Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico. Dr. Guzmán identified them as P. subcubensis. This is the first report of P. subcubensis from Thailand. Guzmán also identified Panaeolus campanulatus from Koh Samui.

A. On January 28, 1990, 1 small Psilocybe identified by Villinga as P. subcubensis, and 2 small specimens of a Copelandia species, identified by Gerhardt as a var. or fm. of C. cyanescens (see figure 21) were collected. Stijve (pers. Comm., 1990) noted the discovery of a new indole compound in this Thailand collection of Psilocybe fungi.
B. On January 29, 1990, 3 unidentified species of Agaricus (possibly A. arvensis), 3 small specimens of Psilocybe identified as P. cubensis, and a small collection of Copelandia species identified by Gerhardt as a var. or fm. of C. cyanescens (see figure 22) were also collected.

C. A small collection of P. cubensis was harvested from buffalo (B. bubalis) dung on January 31, 1990 along a mountain trail at 350 meters elevation above Nathon. In addition a small collection of Panaeolus antillarum (see Table 1.) was also collected from the fields of Ban Hua Thanon. <>pD. A small collection of P. cubensis was also obtained from buffalo (B. bubalis) dung harvested alongside rice paddies near Ban Hua Thanon on January 26, 1990.

E. A small collection of P. subcubensis was harvested on January 4, 1990 from buffalo (B. bubalis) dung along a mountain trail at 650 meters elevation near Chiang Dao in Northern Thailand. Collection E was identified in Leiden, Netherlands by Villinga as P. subcubensis (Stijve, pers. Comm., February 23, 1990).

Collections A and B were obtained from cattle (B. indicus) in a fenced pasture among palm trees (C. nucifera) 6 km north of Ban Hua Thanon, alongside of highway 4169 near the village of Ban Saket.

The Copelandia specimens in collections A and B were recognized by Gerhardt in Berlin as a variety or form of Panaeolus (Copelandia) cyanescens Berkeley and Broome. The spores measured 13 X 9.5 microns and the pleurocystidia and cheilocystidia were both present. According to Gerhardt (Stijve, pers. Comm., May 7, 1990) there are small microscopical differences in the color of the metuloids which are more or less green at the tips. Gerhardt (pers. Comm. to Stijve, April 4, 1990) examined similar specimens of Copelandia species from Madras, India, and concluded that the collections from Koh Samui, Thailand were a var. or fm. of C. cyanescens.

The Copelandia specimens in collections A and B have relatively high percentages of psilocin, but no psilocybin is present (see figure 23). Although collections of Copelandia from Queensland, Australia, also had large amounts of psilocin but were virtually absent in psilocybin, collections of specimens from Hawaii, examined for comparative analysis, possess large amounts of both psilocin and psilocybin (see figure 24). For the TLC and HPLC methods of analysis see Stijve, Hichenhuber and Ashley (1984).

Collections A-E were forwarded for study to Dr. T. Stijve of Nestec Ltd., Vevey, Switzerland. In a preliminary report, Dr. Stijve indicated that collection A displayed a large concentration of various tryptamine alkaloids (Pers. Comm. February 13, 1990).

A fifth collection of psychoactive dung fungi (collected August 12, 1990) was forwarded to Guzmán for botanical identification. No results of analyses have been received yet.

A sixth collection of psychoactive fungi (collected between August 2-12, 1991) included collections of Psilocybe and Copelandia species from rice paddies near the villages of Ban Hua Thanon, Ban Bo Phut and Ban Lipa Yai on Koh Samui island. In additon, A new variety of Psilocybe, Psilocybe samuiensis Guzmán, Bandala and Allen, which macroscopically resembles P. semilanceata (figure 25) was collected by the senior author (see Guzmán, Bandala and Allen, 1993 and Gartz, Allen and Merlin, 1994). These specimens were forward to Dr. Gaston Guzmán of the Instituto de Ecologia in Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico for botanical determination.

A preliminary report from Stijve (pers. comm., 1991) indicates that the undescribed species is very potent with high concentrations of both psilocin and psilocybin.

The authors of this study wish to thank the following people for their assistance in the preparation of this paper: Mr. Sawat, Mr. Toowey, Mr. Jak, Mr. Ahka, Mr. Mungalow, and Mr. Rin of Ban Hua Thanon; and Mr. N. L. of Bo Phut, Koh Samui, Thailand for placing their trust in the senior author and allowing him into their homes and for the privilege of taking their photographs; and Dr. Prakitsin Sihanonth, Head Department of Microbiology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand; Mr. Paul Risi, Norwell, Massachusetts and Mr. Steve Hager, Trans High Corporation, New York, for information pertaining to location sites in Thailand; Dr. Stanley Krippner, Saybrook Institute, San Francisco; Dr. T. Stijve, Vevey, Switzerland, for his invaluable aid on the chemical analysis of the Thailand collections. Dr. E. Salzman for his encouraging words; Dr. Don Hemmis, University of Hawaii, Hilo, for his examination of the Copelandia specimen collected between September 8-14, 1989; Dr. Gastón Guzmán for his identification of P. subcubensis collected between September 8-14, 1989; Dr. Ewald Gerhardt, Berlin, Germany, and Else Villinga, Leiden, Netherlands, for their identification of species collected in Jan-Feb 1990. A special note of appreciation and gratitute to Mr. Nigel Graham of Glasgow, Scotland, and Frank G. Heidrich and Brigitte Immler of Berlin, Germany for assisting the senior author while conducting field research on Koh Samui, and a special thanks to Dr. Richard Evans Schultes of the Harvard Botanical Museum for his time in reviewing this paper.

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